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Research Thesis

The Research Thesis Project can be downloaded in PDF format.





Research Paper

Abstract A relatively new approach to visual thinking and the grammar of imagery is visual literacy, Visual messages have existed before text based messaging in the forms of prehistoric pictured communications and other symbols, however, a definition of visual literacy that enjoys the consensus of the visual literacy scholarly community does not exist.

Shaping Our Tools to Better Shape Ourselves **//A Look at the History of Photography and Visual Media Literacy in Education//**

//“We become what we behold. We shape our tools and then our tools shape us//.” // – Marshall McLuhan. //

Human history shows that visual communication preceded written language. Even though this is the case, education in Visual Literacy has taken a back seat to Linguistic Literacy for years. With the increase in technology as an affordable and viable option within the classroom, visual literacy has been gaining prominence and is beginning to be united with linguistic literacy to enable students have a greater deal of retention and understanding of what they are studying. Visual media have the potential to shift paradigms if incorporated successfully with thought and critical evaluation.

According to the Webster’s Dictionary, the definition for “visual” is; of, relating to or used in vision. Also, according the Webster’s Dictionary, the definition for “media” is, the plural form of medium; A medium of cultivation, conveyance, or expression. Although there is no formal definition for the phrase Visual Media, you can conclude based on the definitions above that it might look something like this; A medium of cultivation, conveyance, or expression, that is of or relating to vision or visual perception. The term “Visual Literacy” was first coined in 1969 by John Debes, who offered the following definition of the term (taken from the IVLA website);

“Visual Literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment. Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communication.” //You might want to end the paragraph with a thought/note of your own instead of a quote.//

With the enhancement of the camera, the photographic process, the implementation of video, and the varied forms of hardware and software, using visual media has turned the process of teaching into a much more interactive and dynamic process. Through the evolution of these various forms of visual media, we have moved into a realm of technological and digital pedagogy. Maintaining this digital form of pedagogy invites other ways of communicating and encourages dialog in languages such as photography and other media. Utilizing media in these forms actively fosters engagement in the material. Research reveals that the use of pictures has a positive impact on knowledge acquisition and retention. Catharine Williams (1963) What do these years with Williams and Gardner go to? Are these quotes?wrote specifically on how pictures contribute to learning and the importance of paying attention to the use and creation of visuals. Gardner (1983) wrote about multiple intelligences, and how people have differing proportions of each type of intelligence, and asserted that students should be engaged with spatial intelligence in all areas. Gardner claims this spatial intelligence is related to pictures and is important to developing a well rounded human. This fusing of visual, verbal, and the technological, accommodates a variety of learning styles to assist comprehension (Catterall, 1998).

Since the student use of slates to write on and consequently the American implementation of blackboards in 1801, we have seen visual media thrive in the classroom. Long before photography, film, or video were used as educational tools, the use of the blackboard was critical. Although George Baron, an instructor at West Point Military Academy, introduced it into the US education system in 1801, James Pillans, Headmaster of the Old High School of Edinburgh Scotland, is widely credited for inventing the blackboard. The benefits of chalk and blackboards became clearly evident and schoolhouses across America adopted the medium because it allowed teachers to instruct larger numbers of students more easily. By the mid-1800s, blackboards were found in almost every school and had become an important educational tool. Blackboards remained the primary educational fixture in schoolrooms and businesses for almost 200 years. It wouldn’t be until the 1990’s that Whiteboards would begin to appear. This paragraph has a lot of information. Did you get it from a source? I think some citation is needed.

Humans have long relied on images to convey complex thoughts and information. Consider technical manuals and those confusing instructions that come with a product that needs assembly: a picture is worth a thousand words (Chinese Proverb). As far back as 4 th Century BCE varying individuals wrote about basic pinhole cameras. It is assumed that the first mention of the principles behind the pinhole camera, a precursor to the camera obscura, belongs to Mo-Ti (470 BCE to 390 BCE), a Chinese philosopher. In the 6th century, Byzantine mathematician and architect Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments. By the 10 th century Ibn al-Haytham published the pinhole camera idea in the Book of Optics. His realization that the smaller the pinhole, the sharper the image; helped him gain notoriety for shifting the basis of physics from philosophical to experimental. It was not until 1850 that Sir David Brewster, a Scottish scientist, actually took the first photograph with a pinhole camera. Since this first photograph was taken, the realm of the camera and photography has exploded with the introduction of new and emerging technologies. The pinhole camera and Camera Obscura were only two of the many stepping-stones to what I refer to as visual media. Moving past the pinhole camera and the camera obscura, even past the Daguerreotype, which was the first successful photographic process, discovered in 1839, we are now deep within the realm of digitization as it pertains to photography. Through this astounding discovery of photography we were introduced to the limitless possibilities of visual media, especially in an educational setting. Unfortunately however, most instruction has (and still) treats photography as a supplement to delivering content rather than as a complement, even though photography offers students the opportunity to gain exposure to aesthetics and while using multimodal learning, both of which contribute to positive educational outcomes. This paragraph also has a lot of information in it that needs to get cited. Also, it’s usually a good idea after a quote or piece of information that you got from somewhere to put in your own thought before going onto the next quote.

Photography as a pedagogical tool is not a new concept, but now with the availability and affordability of digital cameras, it allows for ease of acquiring economical and functional equipment for the classroom. Digital cameras, which are closely tied to computer technology, have taken a similar route becoming powerful, inexpensive and smaller. In recent years the quality of cameras incorporated in cell phones has also greatly increased. The ease of capture and distribution of images via e-mail, the Internet, or instant messaging, even directly with a cell phone, has created a culture where images have become a common vernacular (Dijck, 2008). Most students in fact, have sufficient cameras on their cell phones that could be used as tools in the classroom the way calculators are used. Through the creation of journals that include digital images and textual reflections created on phones or computers, students are able to pool resources and come to a better understanding of concepts (Wiske, Franz, & Breit, 2005). With these technological literacies integrated into the curriculum, students are better able to accommodate their personal learning styles (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). The goal goes beyond teaching students how to take pictures; it is to teach them technology associated with better communication (Wiske, Franz, & Breit). John Dewey (1910; 1991) advocated that learners need to be engaged in activities that build intellect, moral sensibilities, social awareness, and aesthetic senses. Students engaged in creating and consuming photographs are exposed to these tenets.

Educators need to look at how the young people of today’s society communicate by increasingly using photographs as communication. Educators need to ask themselves how this communication method can be addressed and implemented in the curriculum. Most importantly, educators need to remain cognizant that the motivation for incorporating tools like photography should not be based on novelty disguised as innovation.

Prior to the 1990s computers were relegated to number crunching and word-processing tasks. The size of early computers and the lack of software applications were limiting factors. The Apple Computer Company was born in a garage in the 1970s, bringing graphic and color capabilities costing thousands of dollars less than mainframe computers of the day (Hirsch & Valentino). In order to be one of those employees that businesses are trying to retain we need a foundation of knowledge based on a technical curriculum. With the implementation of digital technology into the classroom, we have begun to see studies about the functions and uses of visual media in the classroom and how they can be beneficial not only in the short term with learning but also in the long term pertaining to employment.

Constructivist-learning theory suggests that learners construct knowledge as they struggle to understand incidents and interactions. In the constructivist model students are given more visual and experiential information and allowed more flexibility in their approach to learning. Gardner addresses the notion of a “Visual-Spatial Intelligence” which he explains as the ability to work with and understand images and pictures (Gardner, 1983). Shorter and Dean (1994) found that when images were built into lessons, students were more likely to effectively understand the materials they were studying. The mere introduction of technology cannot be presumed to transform learning (Gardener, 2006b), yet it may provide a method of offering differing views to increase comprehension. Maybe try to end the paragraph with a note of your own after the quote.

Finally, as media continue to evolve and newer technologies are introduced into the classrooms, educators must be diligent to ensure that the message they seek to engage learners in, is not buried in more noise through the introduction of media (Gardner & Veenema). The methods of (and motivations for) incorporating technology need to be scrutinized. Crucial questions must be considered as each innovation is introduced. Will it enhance learning or is it simply a window dressing? Is digital photography the proverbial “better blackboard,” or does it hold promise to be transformational? Have advances in educational technology affected the pedagogical practices of teachers? Can these pedagogical practices be strengthened with new technologies related to visual communications? No simple answers exist to all of the questions surrounding the implications of multiple literacies, mediated instruction, or the pedagogical shifts that occur over time; however, most educators recognize the need for an examination of the changes that technology growth has brought to education.

History Visual Communication is becoming more of an important part of the process of education in today’s 21st century learning environment. It is especially significant in a higher education setting. Students are beginning to develop visual communication skills at younger ages and are gleaning and developing these skills throughout the process of their day to day experiences.

As the system of education is in the flux of change and hopefully will continue to progress, the implementation of and education about visual literacy and visual communication will most likely be a significant part. John Debes first used the term Visual Literacy in 1969 and gave the following definition of the term: “Visual Literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment. Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the master works of visual communications (Avergerinou, M.).

Additional definitions include the following:

"the ability to evaluate, apply, or create conceptual visual representations. (Visual Literacy: An E-Learning Tutorial on Visualization for Communication, Engineering and Business. Retrieved April 7, 2008 from [] )

"...the ability to interpret, negotiate, and make meaning from information presented in the form of an image. Visual literacy is based on the idea that pictures can be “read” and that meaning can be communicated through a process of reading." (Visual literacy. (2008, February 24). In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from [] )

"Visual literacy is the ability to see, to understand, and ultimately to think, create, and communicate graphically. Generally speaking, the visually literate viewer looks at an image carefully, critically, and with an eye for the intentions of the image's creator. Those skills can be applied equally to any type of image: photographs, paintings and drawings, graphic art (including everything from political cartoons to comic books to illustrations in children's books), films, maps, and various kinds of charts and graphs. All convey information and ideas, and visual literacy allows the viewer to gather the information and ideas contained in an image, place them in context, and determine whether they are valid." ( Thibault, M. and Walbert, D. (n.d.). Reading images: an introduction to visual literacy. Retrieved April 7, 2008 from [] )

"Can students interpret, use, appreciate, and create images and video using both conventional and 21st century media in ways that advance thinking, decision-making, communication, and learning?" ( Lemke, C. 21st century skills for 21st century learners. Retrieved April 9, 2008 from [] )

Visual literacy, is obviously a complex term and has multiple definitions. Though the definitions vary, they do all seem to have some commonalities. Commonalities among most of them include the abilites to see (interpret) visuals as well as the ability to create (develop) visuals.

The Problem In 1969 Debes offered a tentative definition of the concept, because however complete his definition might seem, there are many more definitions of the term. The coexistence of so many disciplines that lie at the foundation of the concept of Visual Literacy, both causes and emphasizes the eclectic nature of it. The largest obstacles for visual literacists is determining if there can be a unanimously agreed upon definition of the term and if so what is it?

The lack of agreement across disciplines about the definition of term is primarily because the varied disciplines that have attempted to define visual literacy have done so, according to specific needs within their specified disciplines. Across the various fields, Visual Literacy can be interpreted and defined in differing ways. Some of the experts in the various fields who have attempted to define Visual Literacy are

Philosophers Librarians Educators Artists Art Historians and Museum Curators

Previous Research - Data Analysis The prior attempts at determining an operational definition of Visual Literacy have not yet concluded with a synthesized, widely accepted definition. The various attempts at creating such a definition have not been uniform across all curricula and have not been agreed upon as cohesive enough to be applied across the various curricula.

The many problems with previous research include a lack of participants, an overabundance of variables effecting the definition and an inability to solidify a valid method for indexing images that can follow varied interpretations across the various curricula.

In my research, I found that the plethora of debate about the proper definition of the term is partially centered around the vexation that images can be categorized, interpreted and indexed differently depending on who you are and what discipline you are in. This basic problem, evolves into a larger one when trying to define the literal and operational definitions of ‘Visual Literacy’.

The breadth and depth of visual communication is expansive and before solidifying a definition of Visual Literacy, certain obstacles need to be overcome. Beginning with a taxonomy of visual terminology and appropriate definitions of the variety of visual terms as well as how they justify its presence in the various curricula are imperative.

Scholars emphasized that visuals are just as important as text in a message. The articles and texts synthesized in my research show an array of complex visual terminology. It also demonstrates how the concepts fit under the larger heading of visual literacy.

According to one taxonomy described, visual literacy is divided into three branches: visual thinking, visual rhetoric, and visual communication. Visual thinking consists of the process of visualizing and thinking about visual information. Visual rhetoric represents the ability to understand audience, purpose, and arrangement in relation to the visual; as such, visual and document design would fall into this category. This categorization offers a way of organizing and defining visual literacy; it is the faculty of visually thinking, analyzing, and communicating. Its instruction seeks to develop in students the cognitive process of developing visuals as well as an understanding of the context and elements that form the visual message. Instead of focusing on the concepts separately, employing a visual literacy framework enables us to equip students with this complex and necessary faculty.

Eve Brumberger’ study “Visual Literacy and the Digital Native: An Examination of the Millennial Learner.” explores the degrees to which Digital Natives are Visually literate. There is a general assumption that digital natives are more visually literate than other generations, and through this empirical study that examines these claims by assessing post-secondary students’ use of visually-oriented technologies and their interpretation of visual material, she was able to discern through the data, that participants are not particularly adept at producing and interpreting visual communication.

I researched many articles about the varying subjects related to Visual Literacy. I found that in the process of searching for an agreed upon definition of visual literacy, there were many other terms that I needed to define first. In an effort to guide you through the process of my document analysis phase, I have laid out many of the peripheral research terms I needed to define in order to attempt to define visual literacy. In T.Portewig’s article “Making Sense of the Visual in Technical Communication: A Visual Literacy Approach to Pedagogy,” the analysis uncovers earlier models, present thinking, and possible directions for visual literacy in the field of technical communication. Their arguments for the visual shed light on visual literacy’s function and value. In this article, scholars emphasized that visuals are just as important as text in a message.

Tiffany Craft Portewig’s article, “Making Sense of the Visual in Technical Communication: A Visual Literacy Approach to Pedagogy.”synthesizes how the variety of visual terms are defined, as well as how they justify its presence in a technical communication curriculum. The analysis uncovers earlier models, present thinking, and possible directions for visual literacy in the field of technical communication. Their arguments for the visual shed light on visual literacy’s function and value. The article stresses the need to understand the foundations of the visual, because it was not previously studied and applied in the classroom. Perhaps most importantly, these scholars emphasize that visuals are just as important as text in a message.

Barton and Barton call attention to the grim state of visual instruction; essentially, they argue that “our pedagogical practice and literature on visual communication leaves us ill-prepared to address this problem of visual instruction effectively” [6, p. 126]. Kostelnick (1994) takes this one step further to claim that “as a discipline, we need to know how visual language developed, what issues now shape it, and how research can illuminate these issues” [7, p. 91]. Kostelnick focuses on an understanding of visuals in order to develop a pedagogical stance.

Lee Brasseur argues that a model of visual literacy would best “meet the needs of the technological workplace” [8, p. 76]. The model should focus on “the importance of visual thinking, with additional emphasis on the change in the author/designer role as well as on the diverse perceptual landscape in computer agevisual design [8, p. 76]. Brasseur is asserting that this three-fold model of instruction will meet the needs of changing technology, because it takes into account the cognitive and rhetorical aspects of visual literacy. She is also placing an emphasis on visual literacy in the context of the workplace, which signals the importance of preparing students for settings beyond the classroom.

There seems to be a relative (based on the size of the data analysis) consensus in the technical communication field that approaching pedagogy through a visual element is key and necessary. In addition to the visual element being justified (within the technical communication field) this analysis contributes greatly to the larger picture of visual literacy and its importance.

The articles and texts synthesized in this article show an array of complex visual terminology. It also demonstrates how the concepts fit under the larger heading of visual literacy. In addition, as a field we need to further clarify and classify visual terminology within the parameters of visual literacy. This will also help further formulate and investigate the literacy that underlies these visual concepts.

According to the taxonomy described in this article, visual literacy is divided into three branches: visual thinking, visual rhetoric, and visual communication. Visual thinking consists of the process of visualizing and thinking about visual information. Visual rhetoric represents the ability to understand audience, purpose, and arrangement in relation to the visual; as such, visual and document design would fall into this category. This categorization offers a way of organizing and defining visual literacy; it is the faculty of visually thinking, analyzing, and communicating. Its instruction seeks to develop in students the cognitive process of developing visuals as well as an understanding of the context and elements that form the visual message. Instead of focusing on the concepts separately, employing a visual literacy framework enables us to equip students with this complex and necessary faculty. Students must understand more than the visual elements—they must know how to effectively develop and design visual messages using the breadth of their visual toolbox.

Many studies have been conducted to attempt to define visual literacy and/or analyze the perceptions and usage of it. In addition to defining Visual Literacy, determining the need for instruction about it is imperative. Eve Brumberger’ study “Visual Literacy and the Digital Native: An Examination of the Millennial Learner.” explores the degrees to which Digital Natives are Visually literate. There is a general assumption that digital natives are more visually literate than other generations, and through this empirical study that examines these claims by assessing post-secondary students’ use of visually-oriented technologies and their interpretation of visual material, she was able to discern through the data, that participants are not particularly adept at producing and interpreting visual communication.

As one might expect of college students, the survey participants reported spending a significant amount of time each day at a personal computer; over half of them (56%) indicated that they use a computer for five or more hours per day. Similarly to photographic technologies, students’ use of certain computer technologies may provide insight into how comfortable and capable these digital natives are with tools for creating visually communication. The students tended to over state their knowledge and use of technology, thus creating a paradigm where their perceived skills were higher than their actual skills.

Finally, participants reported the lowest skill levels for website authoring software (e.g. Adobe® Dreamweaver®). Only 15% indicated that they were somewhat or very skilled with this type of software, and only 1% claimed an expert or professional skill level. Meanwhile, 11% said they were slightly skilled, and 20% said they were entry-level amateurs. Over half (53%) of the respondents had no experience with website authoring software.

The survey data suggest that participants are not particularly adept at producing and interpreting visual communication. This is very interesting. I would love to see more data about this. Is it a specific age group that is or is not visually adept? Are there more specific characteristics to the demographic?

The data indicate that the prevalent belief among survey participants is that images on the Web are typically altered (see Figure 4), although a handful of respondents (5%) said they rarely made this assumption. The vast majority (87%) indicated that they sometimes or usually assume that the images they see on the Web have been altered, and 8% always make that assumption.

The Question What is the operational definition of visual literacy in a 21st century higher education setting? Is it possible to establish a unified, agreed-upon, synthesized definition? Is it possible for that definition to be unanimous across the various disciplines? How important is Visual Literacy in today’s higher education setting? How important will it be in the future?

Purpose - Goals & Objectives The statistical analysis of previous data has shown that visual literacy is growing in importance across most higher education disciplines (see above research - Enguage Report). My study was done to determine the perceptions and definitions of Visual Literacy as it pertains to ESU faculty across all majors and disciplines. In this study I attempted to determine the following:


 * Faculty knowledge of Visual Literacy and its elements.
 * Faculty use of Visual Literacy and its elements.
 * The various definitions of Visual Literacy from the perspective of faculty at ESU.

The purpose of my research was to determine whether Visual Literacy has a clear concise definition that is agreed upon by ESU Faculty. The objectives of this study are to assess the current usage of, understanding of, interest in and definition of Visual Literacy as it pertains to the ESU Faculty community.

The ideal outcome of this research would to be determine an operational definition of Visual Literacy that can assist in determining the necessity of specialized training for faculty to assist in proper implementation of Visual literacy criteria into their courses. The study should ideally reveal the disciplines that need clarification and potential training to further incorporate visual literacy based on the operational definition discovered. The study should be able to determine which disciplines if not all, that would benefit from better understanding of Visual Literacy. The study should be able to delineate certain disciplines that would benefit from a prerequisite course in visual literacy over others. The study is intended to be a stepping stone to a thesis and/or dissertation determining the necessity for and possible implementation of a common core class for incoming freshman, either on a campus wide basis or as needed basis depending on the discipline.

After determining the operational definition based on the perceptions of ESU faculty, the next step would be determining the current competency of the ESU faculty in Visual Literacy. This study however will only focus on determining an operational definition that can be widely accepted across all ESU disciplines.

The University East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1893, is one of 14 members of the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education. The university has 66 buildings on a 256-acre campus, in the heart of the Pocono Mountains and the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area which is located within a couple hours drive of both New York City and Philadelphia.

With an enrollment of 7,500 made up of students from 19 states and 22 countries, the majority of ESU undergraduate students are from Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The university offers 58 undergraduate degree programs and is comprised of four academic colleges - Arts and Sciences, Education, Business and Management, and Health Sciences. The university's graduate college offers 23 master's degree programs. There are 353 faculty on the ESU campus, 291 of them are full time. Of those 291, 266 are permanent full-time faculty. Ninety-one percent of the university's full-time permanent instructional faculty members hold the highest degree possible in their academic fields.

The Participants Of the 266 full-time, permanent faculty, 31 successfully participated (11.65% Participation rate) in my survey. An initial email was distributed to the Chairs of each academic department. Dept. Chairs were asked to forward my email and the link to the survey to their full-time faculty. I emphasized forwarding the survey to faculty that they believed were most-likely to commit to the survey and complete it in its entirety. I requested that a minimum of 1 full-time faculty member per department fill out the survey.

I had the following breakdown of participation from the academic departments.

Speech Language Pathology 2 Media Communications & Technology 1 English 3 Philosophy & Religious Studies 1 Movement Activities & Lifetime Fitness 2 Modern Languages 1 Early Childhood & Elementary Ed 3 Recreation & Leisure Services Management 1 Leadership Studies & Military Science 1 Sport Management 1 Political Science 1 Theatre 1 Communications Studies 1 Physics 1 Chemistry 2 Psychology 2 Physical Education & Teacher Education 1 Professional & Secondary Education 1 Special Education & Rehabilitations 1 Nursing 1 Academic Enrichment & Learning 2 Exercise Science 1

INCOMPLETE SURVEYS - MORTALITIES - 19 These departments had someone begin the survey but it was not successfully completed. 15

Athletic Training Biological Sciences Business Management Computer Science Economics Geography Health History Hotel, Restaurant & Tourism Management Intercultural & Interdisciplinary Studies Library Mathematics Music Reading Sociology

Process Recently the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) has done research to draft an operational definition that can be used across all disciplines. Using this research as well as other research as the groundwork for my study, I intended to compile a series of definitions across the ESU campus faculty and attempt to clarify and synthesize these variants into a cohesive university-wide operational definition.

Gleaning from previous research that has failed for various reasons, I opted to use the IVLA’s draft standards as my baseline In order to operationally define Visual Literacy from a faculty perspective.

Methodology Document Analyses Analyzed various other operational definitions Analyzed historical perspectives Analyzed visual literacy variables and elements that differ across curricula Analyzed visual literacy definitions as they differ across curricula Survey - ESU Faculty - Electronic Survey- Survey Gizmo Assessed interest in visual communication Assessed interest in visual literacy Assessed knowledge of visual literacy Assessed perceived definition of visual literacy Assessed visual literacy expectations of students Assessed visual literacy importance as it pertains to subject matter Assessed visual literacy importance as it pertains to lecture presentation

The Survey I chose to do my survey via online electronic survey. The site I used was Survey Gizmo. The desired response rate was a minimum of 30%. The received response rate was 11.65%. The survey consisted of 71 questions, of those 69 of them were 5 point likert scale questions looking for levels of agreement. Those 69 questions, were direct, unaltered statements directly pulled from the IVLA’s draft version of Visual Literacy standards. Questions 70 and 71, were open-ended questions looking for additional opinions about the subject matter.

**//Justification for use of electronic survey as methodology//** Ease of use with potential large numbers of participants

**//Limitations of survey//** Participant attitudes about the survey - some participants may perceive visual literacy incorrectly and assume it to mean media literacy, digital literacy, and/or technological literacy, etc. Limited possible answers Distribution method (comfort, discomfort with) Language (how the questions are written) Time constraints Cultural perspectives

**//Rationale of survey questions//** Previous organizations have tried to define visual literacy and been unsuccessful. The questions I have used are direct elements taken from the draft version of the IVLA’s operational definition of Visual Literacy.

Expected Outcome I expected that, like in past research the definitions would vary across disciplines. With some similarities across disciplines, I can compare and contrast against previous operational definitions (IVLA, EnGauge Report, etc) to determine if a generalized definition exists. Gleaning commonalities from across the varied disciplines I can begin to compile data for comparison to the previous data and the current operational definitions that the IVLA has drafted, but not yet solidified.

With the growth of Visual Communication in all disciplines of higher education, I would like to determine the necessity and/or need of a visual literacy core class that could be offered to incoming college freshman as a prerequisite course, and determine if there are certain disciplines that would benefit more so than others with a course of this nature..

Findings - Actual Outcome Across the various academic departments on the ESU campus, there is agreement as to some of the elements that should be included in the definition of Visual Literacy. Though there was dissent as well, there was agreement on the following..
 * Visual literacy skills equip a learner to understand the contextual components involved in the production and use of visual materials.
 * Visual literacy skills equip a learner to analyze the contextual components involved in the production and use of visual materials.
 * Visual literacy skills equip a learner to analyze the cultural components involved in the production and use of visual materials.
 * Visual literacy skills equip a learner to analyze the aesthetic components involved in the production and use of visual materials.
 * A visually literate individual is a critical consumer of visual media.
 * In an interdisciplinary, higher education environment, a visually literate individual should be able to interpret and analyze the meanings of images and visual media.
 * In an interdisciplinary, higher education environment, a visually literate individual should be able to evaluate images and their sources.
 * In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Word Processing / Data Entry Skills.
 * In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with accessing and using visual materials ethically & responsibly.

Below are some of the terms and expectations that were of the majority within the specific level of agreement.

**Strongly Agree** During class or for an assignment, my students use editing and formatting features (margins, spelling, and tabs) in a word processing application. Insert images (e.g., downloaded from the Web or copied from a removable device) into documents. Visual literacy is a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively evaluate images and visual media. Visual literacy skills equip a learner to analyze the aesthetic components involved in the production and use of visual materials. A visually literate individual is a critical consumer of visual media. In an interdisciplinary, higher education environment, a visually literate individual should be able to interpret and analyze the meanings of images and visual media. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Word Processing/Data Entry Skills. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Powerpoint presentations. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with accessing and using visual materials ethically & responsibly. During class or for an assignment, my students use Powerpoint to make presentations.

**Agree** During class or for an assignment, my students interpret and analyze the meanings of images and visual media. During class or for an assignment, my students can (or do) explain and demonstrate ethical and legal behavior (including fair use guidelines) in copying/downloading files, applications, and media. During class or for an assignment, my students watch videos from youtube (Vimeo, Viddler, or other online video websites) for class related activities. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Word Processing /Document Design. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Word Processing /Data Entry Skills. In an interdisciplinary, higher education environment, a visually literate individual should be able to understand many of the economic issues surrounding the creation and use of images and visual media. In an interdisciplinary, higher education environment, a visually literate individual should be able to understand many of the legal issues surrounding the creation and use of images and visual media. In an interdisciplinary, higher education environment, a visually literate individual should be able to evaluate images and their sources.

**Neutral (***The items in the neutral category tended to have the least amount of agreement across the varied levels of agreement. The numbers were pretty even, with a majority in the ‘Neutral’ level.)

During class or for an assignment, my students create original spreadsheets, entering simple formulas (various number formats, equations, percentages). During class or for an assignment, my students demonstrate that they have a good understanding of the principles of visual literacy In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Desktop Publishing /Document Development & Design. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Spreadsheet Manipulation & Design. A visually literate individual is a competent contributor to a body of shared knowledge and culture.

**Disagree** In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Spreadsheet Manipulation & Design. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Graphics Manipulation In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Desktop Publishing /Data Entry Skills. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with CAD/CAM. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Operating System Understanding (use & manipulation). In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Audio recording. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent in identifying the physical components (hardware) of a microcomputer system. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent in understanding the difference between systems and application software. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent in utilizing and interacting with computer assisted instruction software, an LMS and/or a CMS program (Learning Management System, Course Management System).

**Strongly Disagree** In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Software Development (Programming). In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Video Camera Operation. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent in understanding the difference between systems and application software. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent in identifying the physical components (hardware) of a microcomputer system. In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with Operating System Understanding (use & manipulation). In order to succeed in my courses, I expect students to be competent with CAD/CAM.

Meaning It seems to me, based on the numbers, that there is a general agreement with the standards and terms of Visual Literacy that the IVLA has drafted. Though there is definitely dissent and disagreement, the majority agrees with the suggested standards of the definition.

Limitations Realistically Visual Literacy should be defined and implemented into the curriculum, long before higher education. More studies across several curricula and age groups should be conducted.

Recommended Future Research - Methodology In addition, as a field we need to further clarify and classify visual terminology within the parameters of visual literacy. This will also help further formulate and investigate the literacy that underlies these visual concepts. Before an operational definition of Visual Literacy in the 21st century higher educational setting can fully be determined, the elements of visual literacy, history of visual literacy, various definitions of visual literacy and the significance of visual literacy need to be fully addressed and understood.

Terms to Understand I researched many articles about the varying subjects related to Visual Literacy. I found that in the process of searching for an agreed upon definition of visual literacy, there were many other terms that I needed to define first. In an effort to guide you through the process of my document analysis phase, I have laid out many of the peripheral research terms I needed to define in order to attempt to define visual literacy.

**Media Literacy** The concept of media literacy, like that of literacy itself, has long proved contentious (Luke, 1989). The hugely significant skills of reading and writing have been augmented by the also-significant skill of “reading” audiovisual material from the mid-twentieth century onward. Today, as we witness a further major shift in information and communication technology (ICT), a new form of literacy is emerging, uneasily termed computer literacy or Internet literacy. This new form of literacy, if it is indeed “new,” and if it is appropriately labeled “literacy,” lies at the heart of a series of lively debates intersecting the academy, the policy community, and the public. - Sandra E. Moriarty, Ph.D. University o/Colorado - Boulder Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A.

**Digital Literacy** Type ‘digital literacy’ into a search engine and dozens of return hits will offer a bundle of sites that all present similar understandings of what digital literacy is and what constitutes its main processes. Wikipedia, as one might expect, provides the first-ranked Google search result. It is instructive to see how the term is described there: Digital literacy is the ability to locate, organize, understand, evaluate, and create information using digital technology. - Wikipedia 2010 At base, this would appear a sensible description. If we continue the search trail to the Northwest Learning Grid (NWLG 2009: online) in the UK, we find a definition of digital literacy aligns almost perfectly with Wikipedia’s, but adds an important element into the mix, namely, ‘knowing how to act sensibly, safely and appropriately online’ (NWLG 2009: online). Other jurisdictions also have their own – though not dissimilar – definitions. In Australia, the Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs (MCEECDYA) report on ICT (Information and Communication Technology) literacy for Years 6 and 10 identified three broad ‘strands’ of digital (or ICT) proficiency: Working with information, Creating and sharing information, Using ICT responsibly. In addition to these elements of proficiency, MCEECDYA also identified six main processes involved in digital literacy 1. Accessing information 2. Managing information 3. Evaluating information 4. Creating new understandings 5. Communicating with others Using ICT appropriately

**Digital Visual Literacy** Like other literacies (textual literacy, numeracy), digital visual literacy (DVL) is the ability both to create and to understand certain types of information, in this case visual materials created with a computer. DVL is now essential in many daily life and workplace tasks, from looking critically at newspaper images or TV evening news to using a digital camera, making a Web site, creating presentations, and modeling and visualizing data in virtually all of the sciences. DVL is, of course, also now essential in all visually oriented disciplines. Defining the underlying principles of DVL and integrating it into established curricula presents many challenges. - Anne Morgan Spalter, Andries van Dam.

**Visual Thinking** Visual thinking consists of the process of visualizing and thinking about visual information. - T. Portewig,

**Visual Rhetoric** Visual rhetoric represents the ability to understand audience, purpose, and arrangement in relation to the visual; as such, visual and document design would fall into this category. (T. Portewig, “Making Sense of the Visual in Technical Communication: A Visual Literacy Approach to Pedagogy.”, Technical Writing and Communication,Vol. 34 (1 & 2) 31-42 2004)

**Visual Communication** Visual communication includes those elements that comprise the visual product, such as visual language. ( T. Portewig, “Making Sense of the Visual in Technical Communication: A Visual Literacy Approach to Pedagogy.”, Technical Writing and Communication,Vol. 34 (1 & 2) 31-42 2004)

**Semiotics** Semiotics is the study of signs and signals, sign systems, and sign processes. Jakobson defines semiotics as "the exchange of any messages whatever and the system of signs that underlie them." (Sebeok, 1991, p. 60) Fiske adds the notion of generation of meaning to this definition (1990, p. 42). In other words, messages are made of signs and conveyed through sign systems called codes; meaning is derived only to the degree that the receiver of the message understands the code. Researchers in semiotics come from varied areas, such as communication, linguistics, anthropology, and marketing, as well as the natural sciences, where sign systems are studied in such areas as cellular biology and zoology. The focus of our concern is on the communication aspects of a sign, and particularly the communication of non-verbal signs. (Sandra E. Moriarty, Ph.D. University o/Colorado - Boulder Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. The Symhiotics of Semiotics and Visual CommunicationJournal of Visual Literacy)

**Signs** Because Peirce approaches semiotics as a cognitive philosopher, he is more interested in meaning interpretation and modes of cognition, and does not limit his analysis to only arbitrary codes. This is clear in his analysis of three types of signs: iconic, indexical, and symbolic. (Sandra E. Moriarty, Ph.D. University o/Colorado - Boulder Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. The Symhiotics of Semiotics and Visual CommunicationJournal of Visual Literacy)

**Iconic Signs** Iconic are mimetic representations, thal is, they look like what they represent. ( Sandra E. Moriarty, Ph.D. University o/Colorado - Boulder Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. The Symhiotics of Semiotics and Visual CommunicationJournal of Visual Literacy)

**Indexical Signs** With an indexical sign, there is a physical connection - evidence between the signified and the signifier. For example, a footprint means someone has walked by and smoke means there is a fire. An indexical sign cues something or is a clue or evidence of something. ( Sandra E. Moriarty, Ph.D. University o/Colorado - Boulder Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. The Symhiotics of Semiotics and Visual CommunicationJournal of Visual Literacy)

**Symoblic Sign** Only in the third category, the symbolic sign, (a flag, school colors, an abstract logo or trademark) is the meaning arbitrary. ( Sandra E. Moriarty, Ph.D. University o/Colorado - Boulder Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. The Symhiotics of Semiotics and Visual CommunicationJournal of Visual Literacy)

The IVLA Standards(Draft) **ACRL/IRIG Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, Draft 6/16/2011. 2011.** __[]__

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